Format of Video DVD

Although the capacity of storage in the DVD is great, the not compressed data of video of a film, never could fit in a DVD. In order to be able to insert a film in a DVD, a compressor makes lack of video. A called group MPEG (Moving Picture Experts Group), establishes the standards to compress the films in digital format. When the films are put in the DVDs, they are codified in stored format MPEG-2 and next in the disc. The compression format widely is accepted like an international standard. Your reproducer DVD contains a coder MPEG-2, who can decompress these data as fast as your you can see the film.
Reduction as large as the data
A film normally is filmed to an average of 24 plots per second. This means that every second, are 24 complete images in the screen. The Japanese American televisions use a called format NTSC, which unfolds a total of 30 plots per second, although it does in a sequence of 60 fields, containing each alternative lines of the image. Other countries, like Spain, use the format the PAL, that unfolds 50 fields per second, but with a greater resolution. When existing this difference between averages of plots and resolution, a film MPEG needs to be formatted for a system or another one, (NTSC or the PAL).
The coder MPEG who creates the compressed film, analyzes each plot and decides like codifying it. The compression uses a little the same technology that uses the compressors of digital photographies to eliminate duplicated or irrelevant data. Also it uses information of other plots to reduce the complete size of the file. Each plot can be codified in one of the three following ways:

• Like one intraframe, which contains a complete image of the data for that plot. This method to codify provides with the smaller compression.
• One “predicted frame”, which contains sufficient information to say to him to reproducer DVD as to show to the plot based on infraframe or predicted frames more recent.
• Bidirectional. In order to show this type of plot, the reproducer must have the information of infraframe or predicting adjacent. The USA the interpolation to calculate the position and color of each pixel.
  

Following the type of scene, the coder will decide that type of plots to use. For example, if there is a scene of very fast action that must be turned, where the things change from a plot to another one quickly, many infraframes will have more to be codified. All this can sound something complicated, but already you will have realized to amount of work that needs to make your reproducer DVD to decode a film MPEG-2. A great amount is needed processing and also codecs necessary to make work it.

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What are the electrons?

A s-electron a particle subatomics of negative load. It can free (not be connected to an atom, or be conexionado to the nucleus of an atom. The electrons in atoms exist in spherical armors of several radii, representing the energy levels. At the most great they are these spherical armors, greater will be the energy than it contains the electron.

In the electrical conductors, the current flows are resulting of the movements of atom electrons to atom individually, and of the negative poles to the positives generally. In the semiconducting materials, the current happens by the movement of electrons, but in some cases, he is more illustrative to see the current like a movement of deficiencies of the atom electron atom. An atom with deficiencies in a semiconductor is called hollow. These hollows move generally of positive the electrical poles to the negatives.

To put it another way, the s-electrons the particles smaller than they are within atoms. The atoms consist of protons (loaded positively), neutrons (without load) and electrons (loaded negative). You can imagine atoms as if they were a planet where it has some meteorites around orbiting to his. The planet represents the nucleus which consists of protons and neutrons, and the meteors orbiting are the electrons. These electrons move at a high speed around the nucleus.

Nevertheless, the electrons do not escape to the influence of the nucleus because they are tied by forces maintain that them in a continuous orbit.

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How work the microprocessors?

The computer that you are using right now to read this page Web uses a microprocessor to carry out its work. The microprocessor is the heart of any normal computer. Or a servant or a laptop, all needs one, and or a Pentium, Sparc or anyone of the many existing marks or types of microprocessors, will approximately do the same of a very similar form.
A microprocessor - also known as CPU or central unit process - is a complete element of computation, made in a single chip. The first microprocessor was the Intel 4004, which was introduced in 1971. He was not too powerful - everything what could make add and remain, and only could simultaneously do it with 4 bits. Even so, the incredible thing was that all these functions were in a single chip. Previously to this first model of microprocessor, the engineers constructed computers with long collections of Chips or more discreet components, like the transistors. Like anecdote, microprocessor 4004 was integrated in one of the first portable electronic calculators.
The logic behind a microprocessor
In order to understand as a microprocessor works, he is very useful to watch in his interior and to learn of the logic used when creating one. In order to know all the process it would be necessary to even learn assembly language - officially the language of the machines and the native language of the microprocessors, but we will try to simplify it a little for a greater understanding of its operation.
A microprocessor executes a series of instructions in the language previously mentioned to say to him to the processor that is what must do. Being based on these instructions, a microprocessor makes three things basic:

• Using its arithmetical logical drive (ALU), a microprocessor can conduct mathematical operations like adding, remaining to multiply and to divide. The modern microprocessors contain floating processors that can conduct operations very sophisticated.
• A microprocessor can move data of a location from memory to another one.
• A microprocessor can make decisions and to jump to a new group of instructions based on those decisions.

A microprocessor can make things very complex, but the previous described functions, are the basic ones to consider. Internamente in a microprocessor, we can find the following elements:

• A address bus, that can be of 8, 16 or 32 bits, and that east address takes to the memory.
• A bus of data, that can be of the same bits previously mentioned, that can send data to the memory and receive data of the memory.
• A line of reading (RD) and another one of writing (WR) to say to him to the memory if it wants to form or to locate the address.
• A line for the clock that sends pulses in sequence to the processor.
• A line to resetear the accountant of the program to zero and to reinitiate the execution.

Memory in the microprocessors
Until now it has been spoken on the address of the instructions and the buses of data, and the lines of writing and reading. These buses and lines must go connected to rom memory and ram, generally to both.
Rom memory - It is a memory of only reading (Read Only Memory). A chip ROM is formed by a series of predefined bytes. The bus says to the chip ROM to him that byte to take and to locate in the bus of data. When the line reading changes its state, this chip presents/displays the byte selected in the bus of data indicated above.
Ram memory - It is a ram (Random Memory Access). It contains bytes of information, and the microprocessor can read or write in those bytes following if the lines of reading and writing are signalized. This type of memory forgets all the information that contains once the energy goes out. By this the computer needs the rom memory.

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Operation of the plasma screens

In the past years, the great majority of the televisions has been constructed around the same technology: The cathode ray tube (CRT). In a television with this model of screen, which at the outset were televisions of black and white, they used a device which it generated a negative particle electron  ray, within a great glass tube. The electrons excite extended phosphorus atoms at the end of the tube by the screen, which causes that the phosphorus atoms are illuminated. The image of the television is produced when illuminating different areas from the phosphorus cover with different colors from different intensity.

The cathode ray tubes usually produce hummings, vibrant images and some other disadvantages, like their size for example. If you want to increase the width of the screen in a CRT, also it is necessary to increase the length of the tube, to give the device that generates the electron ray, more space to reach all the corners of the screen. By this same one, a monitor CRT of many inches will weigh one ton and will occupy much space in a room.

Nevertheless, a new alternative appeared not much ago, and are the plasma screens. These televisions have wide, comparable screens to great monitors CRT but with the difference that has a thickness of about fifteen centimeters. If you have read our article on as a CRT in the main section of television works, then you understand the basic idea of a television or standard monitor. Based on the information of a video signal, the television ignites thousand of small called points pixels, with electrons of high power and distributing them by the screen. Combining the colors in different proportions, the television can produce all the phantom that compose the colors.


The basic idea of a plasma screen, is to illuminate small and fluorescent lights to form an image. Each pixel is formed by 3 fluorescent lights - a red light, a green light and a blue light. Like a television CRT, the plasmas varies the intensity of the different lights to produce a complete rank of colors.

What is plasma?

The central element in a fluorescent light is the plasma, a gas made of ions (loaded atoms electrically) and electrons (charged particles negatively). Under normal conditions, a gas is compound mainly of particles without load. This means that the individual atoms of the gas include equal number of protons and electrons. The loaded electrons negatively are synchronized perfectly with loaded protons positively, reason why the atom has a zero load.

If you introduce many free electrons within the gas when establishing an electrical voltage by means, the situation changes quickly. The free electrons collide with the atoms, causing that lose other electrons. With a missing electron, an atom loses the balance. A positive charge would already exist causing that is an ion.

In the plasma screens with a conventional charge circulating around their interior, the particles of negative load run quickly towards the area of positive charge of the plasma and vice versa. In these wild movements, the particles are continuously striking themselves to each other. These collisions excite the atoms of the gas in the plasma causing that release energy photons. The used atoms of xeon and neon in the plasma screens release to lights photonics when they are excited.

The plasma screen is formed of cells vertical ordinates in horizontal lines and columns, forming a species of grid. Each particular cell has gas that must be ionized, and for it loads of electrodes are sent that are intersectioned with the cells. It is done thousand of times in a fraction of second, loading each one of the cells in turns.

When the loads have been realised, an electrical charge passes through the gas in the cell, creating a loaded particle flux that stimulates gas atoms to release photons with ultraviolet rays. The photons interact with the phosphorus material that covers the internal wall with the cell. Each pixel is compound of three separated cells, each with different phosphorus colors, calls subpixels. Each sub-cell has the colors red, green and blue. These three colors are based together to create the final color of the pixel.

Varying the pulses of the flows before mentioned by the different cells, the intensity of each subpixel can be controlled, to create hundreds of combinations different from the three colors and to include all the phantom.

The main advantage of the plasma screens is that screens can be produced very fine material very great and wide using. When illuminating itself each pixel separately, the resulting image is very shining and of very good quality from any angle. The greater disadvantage of this type of screens continues being its price, although the slope of these prices is progressive and good supplies can already be found.

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How works an electronic circuit?

Before explaining what is an electronic circuit, we will give to a review to which is an electrical circuit first. When you are using a battery, a generator set or a solar panel to produce electricity, are three things that always are equal:

• The origin of the electricity will have two terminals: a positive terminal and a negative terminal.
• The origin of the electric flux - or a generator, battery, etc. - will want to push electrons outside its negative terminal a certain voltage. For example, a battery AA normally wants to push those electrons 1.5 volts.
• The electrons will have to flow from the negative terminal to the positive terminal by means of a copper cable or another type of conductor. When there is a way that goes from the negative terminal to the positive, you have a circuit, and the electrons can flow by the cable.
• You can include a load of any type (a light bulb, a motor, a television, etc.), in center of the circuit. The electricity source will feed the load, and the load will make its function (to create light, to generate images, to take a motor, etc.).

The electronic circuits can be returned very complex, but at a very basic level, always you have the source of the electricity (battery), the load and two cables to lead the electricity between the battery and the load. The electrons move from the origin, by the load and of return to the origin.
The electrons that move have energy. According to electrons they move from a point to another one, can carry out a work. For example, in an incandescent filament light bulb, the energy of electrons is used to create heat, and the heat to create light as well. In an electrical motor, the energy in electrons creates a magnetic field, and this field can interact with others (by attraction and magnetic repulsion) to create movement.
The electronic circuit
Basing us on the explained thing until the moment, an electronic circuit is an electrical circuit that also contains devices such as electronic transistors, valves and other elements. The electronic circuits can do functions complex using the electrical charges, although they are governed with the same laws that the electrical circuits. The electronic circuits can be classified in three groups, which are:

• Analogical circuits - They are those in which the electrical signals vary continuously to correspond with the represented information. The electronic equipment like the power or voltage amplifiers, radios, televisions, usually are analogical excluding many modern devices that usually use digital circuits. The basic units of the analogical circuits are liabilities - resistance, counsellors, inducers - and independent assets, power plants and dependent power plants.
  
• Digital circuits - In these circuits, the electrical signals obtain discreet values to show numerical and logical values that they represent the information to process. The transistors are used mainly like commutators to create footbridges logics. Some examples of electronic equipment that use digital circuits are the calculators, PDAs and the microprocessors.
  

Mixed circuits - These circuits are hybrid and contain analogical elements as much as digital. Some examples of these circuits are the converters of analogical to digitalis and vice versa

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What is Clock Rate?

The clock rate is the rate in cycles per second (measured in hertz) or the frequency of the clock in any synchronous circuit, such as a central processing unit (CPU). For example, a crystal oscillator frequency reference typically is synonymous with a fixed sinusoidal waveform, a clock rate is that frequency reference translated by electronic circuitry (AD Converter) into a corresponding square wave pulse [typically] pr sampling rate for digital electronics applications. In this context the use of the word, speed (physical movement), should not be confused with frequency or its corresponding clock rate. Thus, the term "clock speed" is a misnomer.
A single clock cycle (typically shorter than a nanosecond in modern non-embedded microprocessors) toggles between a logical zero and a logical one state.
CPU manufacturers typically charge premium prices for CPUs that operate at higher clock rates, a practice called binning. For a given CPU, the clock rates are determined at the end of the manufacturing process through actual testing of each CPU. CPUs that are tested as complying with a given set of standards may be labeled with a higher clock rate, e.g., 1.50 GHz, while those that fail the standards of the higher clock rate yet pass the standards of a lesser clock rate may be labeled with the lesser clock rate, e.g., 1.33 GHz, and sold at a lower price.
The clock of a CPU is normally determined by the frequency of an oscillator crystal. The first commercial PC, the Altair 8800 (by MITS), used an Intel 8080 CPU with a clock rate of 2 MHz (2 million cycles/second). The original IBM PC (c. 1981) had a clock rate of 4.77 MHz (4,772,727 cycles/second). In 1995, Intel's P5 Pentium chip ran at 100 MHz (100 million cycles/second), and in 2002, an Intel Pentium 4 model was introduced as the first CPU with a clock rate of 3 GHz (three billion cycles/second corresponding to ~0.3 10⁻⁹seconds per cycle).
With any particular CPU, replacing the crystal with another crystal that oscillates half the frequency ("underclocking") will generally make the CPU run at half the performance. It will also make the CPU produce roughly half as much waste heat. Conversely, some people try to increase performance of a CPU by replacing the oscillator crystal with a higher frequency crystal ("overclocking").^[1] However, the amount of overclocking is limited by the time for the CPU to settle after each pulse, and by the extra heat created.
After each clock pulse, the signal lines inside the CPU need time to settle to their new state. That is, every signal line must finish transitioning from 0 to 1, or from 1 to 0. If the next clock pulse comes before that, the results will be incorrect. Chip manufacturers publish a "maximum clock rate" specification, and they test chips before selling them to make sure they meet that specification, even when executing the most complicated instructions with the data patterns that take the longest to settle (testing at the temperature and voltage that runs the lowest performance).
Also, some energy is wasted as heat (mostly inside the driving transistors) whenever a signal line makes a transition from the 0 to the 1 state or vice versa. When executing complicated instructions that cause many transitions, higher clock rates produce more heat. If electricity is converted to heat faster than a particular computer cooling system can cool it, then the transistors may get hot enough to be destroyed.
Engineers continue to find new ways to design CPUs that settle a little more quickly or use slightly less energy per transition, pushing back those limits, producing new CPUs that can run at slightly higher clock rates. The ultimate limits to energy per transition are explored in reversible computing, although no reversible computers have yet been implemented. Engineers have struggled to design CPUs that run much faster than about 3.5 GHz due to thermodynamic limits in current semiconductor process technologies and other limitations. The highest clock speed microprocessor ever sold commercially to date is found inside IBM's zEnterprise 196 mainframe, introduced in July, 2010. The z196's cores run continuously at 5.2 GHz.
Engineers also continue to find new ways to design CPUs so that, although they may run at the same or a lower clock rate as older CPUs, they get more instructions completed per clock cycle.

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How work the infrared?

In order to understand as the infrared work, it is important to understand something on the light. The amount of energy in a light wave, is related to the wavelength: The shorter wavelengths have a greater energy. Of the visible light, the violet is the one that has more energy, and the red the one that less. Exactly next to the phantom of visible light, it is the infrared phantom.
The infrared light can be separated in three categories:

• Infrared near - more near the visible light, and it has a 1,3 wavelength that varies from the 0,7 to microns.
• Infrared near - With wavelengths that go from 1,3 to 3 microns. The previous category and this, are used in a variety of electronicses, as control of remote control is the case of them.
• Thermal infrared - the phantom of the infrared Occupies most of, and has the 30 rank from the 3 to microns.

The difference between this last and two first, are that the thermal infrared are emitted by an object instead of to be reflected by. The infrared light is emitted by an object reason why it is happening to an atomic level. The atoms are in continuous movement, and we excited if them with an external agent, they produce energy and light. In our tutorial on the technology laser we give a good explanation of how this works.Any thing that is alive, produces energy, and thus they also make some things inanimate as they can be the motors or the rockets. The power consumption produces heat. In return, the heat cause that the objects in an object ignite photons in the infrared phantom. The more it warms up it is the object, the more it cuts will be the wavelength of the infrared photon that has been released. An object that is very hot will even begin to emit photons in the visible phantom, shining in a red tone, and moving through orange, yellow, blue and finally the target.
The applications of the infrared vary in an ample rank of possibilities, that they can go from night vision, to the use in meteorology or astronomy. The military use that has occurred to the infrared mainly has been previously mentioned night vision, monitoring, location of objectives and tracking. Many devices to investigate the space, use this technology in their telescopes to penetrate in regions with cosmic dust and to detect new objects in the universe.
The border between the visible light and the infrared light is not defined of a precise form. The human eye is not too sensible to the light from 700 nm of wavelength, reason why the short frequencies do not contribute too much to common zones with common power plants. Nevertheless, particularly intense lights, like the laser, can be detected until the 780 nm, and will be perceived like red light. The line of the infrared is defined - in agreement with the standards - between 700 and 800 nm.

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Operation of a movable telephone GPS

Imagínate that you are leading to a work interview and gives account you of which you have yourself lost. Your first impulse probably is to call to the company that is going to interview and to ask to you for some indications to arrive. But you do not know very well where you are, can be something complicated to orient itself, even if they begin to give to advice and forms to you to arrive. Now supón that you use the telephone for another intention - to exactly know where you are and knowing how passage by step as to arrive at your destiny. The new telephones that include receivers GPS (Global Positioning System) can do that exactly. With the software or package of services indicated, to give to information of directions or places where you must arrive, it is much more simple and precise.
Combination of two technologies
A movable telephone is basically a sophisticated radio in two-way traffic. Towers and stations base formed on a network of cells, send and receive radio signals. The movable telephones contain transmitters of low power that allow them to communicate with the nearest tower.
According to you travel, you are moved from a cell to another one, and the station base monitors the force of your signal of telephone. According to you move one of these cells on the brink of madness, the power of the signal falls. At the same time, the station bases on the following cell to which you are approaching note as the signal is raising. According to you move of cell cell, the towers transfer your signal from one to another one.
In remote locations, the towers can be so distanced that they cannot signal consistent. Even when there are the towers very well, the high mountains and buildings can interrupt the signals. Some times people have enough problems in securing a good signal within the buildings, especially in elevators.
Even without a receiver GPS, your movable telephone she can provide information with your location. A computer can determine where you are being based on measures of your signal such as:

• The angle of approach to the towers in the cells.
• The time that takes the signal in traveling to multiple towers.
• The power of your signal when it arrives at a tower.

Ever since the obstacles as the trees and buildings can affect while the signal in arriving at a tower takes, this method usually is less precise that a measurement with GPS.
Basic concepts of receiver GPS
Like a movable telephone, a receiver GPS delegates in radio waveses. But instead of to use towers that are put in the ground, it communicates with satellites that orbit the Earth. There are at the moment about 27 satellites GPS in orbit - 24 in active state and 3 like backup in case some fails.
In order to determine your location, a receiver GPS must know:

• The location of at least three satellites over you.
• Where these in relation to the satellites.

The then receiver uses the trilateración to determine your exact location. Basically, it draws a sphere around each one of the three satellites that can locate. These three spheres intersection in two points - one in the space and another one in the ground. The point in the ground where the three spheres are intersectioned is where you are.
A receiver GPS needs to have a line clear to the satellite to be able to operate, reason why urban forests or centers can cause that it has problems in making a good location.
Telephones GPS
The integration of the movable telephones with technology GPS can come in two modalities. On the one hand the telephone can have a complete installed receiver GPS, or also it can be connected to one with cables or one connection bluetooth. These telephones with qualified GPS can understand programming languages like for example Java, and can serve us as street guide to arrive exactly at the point that we say to him. In order to use some of these functions, you need:

• A telephone with qualified GPS or a compatible receiver GPS.
• A call plan that supports to the transmission of maps and data GPS.
• A plan on watch or software that provides the up-to-date maps more, directions or information of the location of the telephone.

The uses most common in telephones GPS are:
Guide of direction - movable telephones GPS with qualified screens, can work like a traditional GPS showing us the exact way from a site another one in real time, and at the same time use the service of voice to indicate the details to us of our route. A data base that contains maps, normally updated of continuous form is used. Not only they even provide directions with directions in different cities or countries, but also similar routes of senderismo, montañismo and other activities.
Localizer - perhaps This it is a use that is not to the liking of all. Some industralists use this type of telephones to make a pursuit of their employees when company telephone occurs them. Many parents are also benefitting from this technology to know at any moment where are their children.

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How works the optical fiber?

Normally you hear things on optical fiber cables when people speak of the telephone systems or the systems of television by cable or Internet. The lines of optical fiber are as fine glass threads pure optical as the human hair, and that transport digital information on long distances. This technology also is used in the medicine and engineering in several of its forms. We will see in this tutorial one on the optical fiber, as these small fiber threads transmit the light and as they are created.
Composition of the optical fiber
The optical fibers are long and very fine threads of pure glass, that is grouped in sets or groups, and that are called optical cables, and that transmit signals of light to long distances. If sights of fence one of these optical fibers, you will be able to see that one is made up of the following parts:

• Nucleus - It is the center of the fiber formed by a fine glass where the light travels.
• Coating - It is the optical devices that surrounds to the nucleus and that reflects the light of return to the nucleus.
• External cover - It is the plastic cover that protects the fiber of possible damages and the humidity.

Hundreds of thousands of these optical fibers are grouped in greater optical cables, than they are protected as well by an external cover called jacket. The optical fibers can come in two ways.

• Fibers monkey-way
• Fibers multi-way

The fibers monkey-way have small nuclei, with about nine microns of diameter. They transmit the light laser with a wavelength among 1300 to 1550 nanometers. The fibers multi-way have greater nuclei with a diameter of about 63 microns and one transmission of light among 850 to 1300 nanometers.
How is transmitted the light in an optical fiber?
Supón that you want to illuminate with a lantern a long and straight corridor. There would not be any problem, since it is only necessary to point the ray of light by the corridor and this light will travel in line straight at the end of the corridor. What happens if the corridor has some turn or doblez? You could put a mirror in the curve to reflect the light ray so that it illuminated the corner. That it happens if the corridor has many corners? You would have to put several mirrors in the walls and to calculate the deflections that it would have to make the ray of light by all the full way of corners. This is exactly what it happens with the optical fiber.
The light in an optical fiber travels continuously by the nucleus (corridor) bouncing with the coating (mirrors in the walls), which is called total internal reflection. The coating does not absorb anything of light of the nucleus, the light can travel by long distances. Nevertheless, some of the light signals can be degraded within the fiber, mainly by the impurities of the glass. The extension of this degradation depends on the purity of the glass and the wavelength of the transmitted light.
The optical fiber system
Basically the optical fiber system is made up of a transmitter, the optical fiber in if, an optical regenerator and an optical receiver.
The transmitter - It is physically near the optical fiber and can even have lenses to focus the light in the fiber.
Optical regenerator - Since it has commented, signals when the light within the fiber is transmitted, especially in long distances can be lost. One or for this reason, more regenerative optician is put throughout the cable to increase the signal of degraded light.
An optical receiver - the signal of incoming digital light Receives to decode, it and sends the electrical signal to the other users, who can be computers, television or system of telephones. The receiver uses a photo cell or photo diode to detect the light.
Advantages of the optical fiber
Why the optical fibers have revolutionized the telecommunications? Comparing it with conventional copper cables, we can take to consider these advantages:

• Less expensive - Several kilometers of optical cable can be cheaper than their copper cable equivalent. This saves money to the suppliers of services and their users.
• But fine - the optical fibers use diameters smaller than other cables, not occupying as much space.
• Greater capacity to transport data - To the being finer cables, amount of fibers in a single optical cable can be grouped major. This allows but to amount of telephone lines or channels in a single cable, increasing its capacity.
• Smaller degradation of the signal - the degradation of the signal is minor who in copper cables.
• Signals of light - Unlike the electrical signals in copper cables, the signals of light of a fiber, do not interfere with the other fibers in the same cable. This is translated in clearer conversations by telephone and one better reception of the television by cable, for example.
• DS - the optical fibers are ideal to take digital information, which is very useful in networks of computers.
• More flexible use - To the power to transmit and to receive light of a flexible form, can be given many uses him with totally different elements, like digital cameras, medicine mechanical engineering, security, etc.

By all this, in many cases the optical fiber is moving to another type of cables in many industries, mainly in the telecommunications and the networks of computers. Like anecdote, when you have possibly spoken on the telephone with somebody to much distance, perhaps you have heard an echo. In the new optical fiber systems east problem has been corrected.

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How work the amplifiers?

When people talk about the amplifiers, normally components or musical equipment are speaking of. But this is only a small representation of the phantom of the audio amplifiers. The reality is that we are surrounded by amplifiers. You can find in televisions, computers, reproducers of all type, and many other devices that use a loudspeaker to produce sounds. We will see in this basic guide, what is what the Y amplifiers do they do since it. The amplifiers can be very complex devices with hundreds of small pieces, but the concept that exists behind them is quite simple. You can take an image clear of how an amplifier works examining the basic components.
                                  
The sound is a fascinating phenomenon. When something vibrates in the atmosphere, it moves the particles that there are around. These particles in the air, as well move the air particles surround that them, taking the pulse of vibration by the air. Our ears capture these fluctuations in the pressure of the air, it translates and them to electrical signals that the brain can process.
The equipment of electronic sound work basically in the same way. It represents the sound like variations of electrical currents. Of a fast form, we can say that there are three passages in this class of sound reproduction:

• The sound waves move a diaphragm in the microphone forwards and back, and the microphone translates east movement in an electrical signal. This electrical signal fluctuates to represent the compression and variations of the sound wave.
• A recorder codifies the electrical signal like a species of scheme - like magnetic impulses in a tape, for example, or as furrows in a vinyl disc.
• A reinterpreta reproducer east scheme as an electrical signal and uses the electricity to move the cone of a loudspeaker advanced back and. This recreates the fluctuations of the pressure of the air originally recorded by the microphone.

As you can see, all the main components in this system are essentially translators: They take the signal in a form they leave and it in another one. In the end, the sound signal is translated to its original format, that is to say, a physical wave of sound.
In order to register all the fluctuations in a sound wave, the diaphragm of the microphone must highly be sensitive. This means that it must be very thin and to move in very short distances. By this, the microphone produces a small electrical charge. This process is viable for the majority of the phases of the process - the current is of sufficient power to use in the recorder, for example, and it is transferred easily by cables. But the final process - to move the cone of the loudspeaker - is more difficult. In order to do this, it is necessary to increase the signal of audio so that it has a greater current, at the same time as it maintains the same scheme of load when fluctuating.
This it is the work of the amplifier. Simply it produces one more a more powerful version of the signal of audio. We will see in the following part of the tutorial, since it makes east process. In order to continue with the guide, it punctures here.

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How works a movable telephone PDA?

It thinks about a daily task, any daily task that you make in the work, office or in house, and is very probable that some small device exists that you can aid realise it. In fact it can be able a small and useful machine to make calls telephone, to use like agenda, entretenerte listening to music as if outside a reproducer MP3, to take photos, to verify your email, and to do many more things. But, How many pockets you have? To handle many electronic devices can become a true annoyance if you must take to four devices with you all the day.
On movable telephone PDA or intelligent telephone, it is a small device that can become position of all the tasks before mentioned concerning computation and communication, all this in a unique package. This article will explore what does of a normal movable telephone, a telephone PDA, as the idea and what arose it can do with.
Unlike many traditional telephones, the intelligent telephones allow individual users, to install, to form and to make work applications of their election. A telephone PDA offers the possibility of personalizing the device to your particular way to make the things. Many programs on the movable telephones standard only offer options limited after the reconfiguration, having adaptarte to their operation. The options of an intelligent telephone are many and to put an example, we will speak of a Dutch company called Waleli, which has developed a way to answer the door of our house with the intelligent telephone.

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Benefits, advantages, limitations Lithium-Ion Batteries

Benefits: The Li-Ion battery receives good qualifications as far as performance and trustworthiness and have found a strong niche of market with portable devices demanding a reduced form factor.
The most popular uses are the wireless telephones and notebooks.
A field in which Li-Ion has been little favorable is in applications that require occasional use of the battery.
In one laptop that is fed mainly by AC, for example, the Li-Ion battery ages with time and the complete benefits of the battery cannot be perceived.
For these applications, other chemicals of battery can be more appropriate. High levels of temperature within some laptops also cause that Li-Ion fails prematurely. Anyway, tests of field is developing, that Li-Ion supports better the heat than Neither
The polymeric lithium systems that are in an early stage of their production, are fighting to reach and to exceed the performance of the Li-Ion batteries.
The high initial cost and the limited supply are the main disadvantages. Once produced in massive form, one hopes that the lithium-polymer batteries are cheaper than those of Li-Ion because they are possible simpler methods of packing.
Like advantages, the lithium-polymer provides densidades of energy slightly more discharges and reduced weight.
Standard norms have not settled down of form for lithium-polímetro batteries then this battery can virtually be molded to any form and size.

Warnings: The Li-Ion batteries have VHD of energy.
It must have precaution when manipulating and try.
They are not due to cortarcircuitar, to overload, to break, to mutilate, to apply invested polarity, to expose to high temperature or to disarm.

Advantages of the Li-Ion Batteries
- HD of potential energy for capacities still majors.
- Relatively low Self-discharge - the self-discharge is smaller in the middle of the one than they undergo Nicd and NiMH
- Little Maintenance. periodic unloadings without effect are not required memory.

Limitation of the Li-Ion Batteries
It requires protective circuit - the circuit of protection limits the voltage and the current. The battery is safe if it is not forced.
It holds to the deterioration of the passage of time, even though one is not in use - storing the battery in fresh place and to the 40 percent of the load state the aging is reduced
Subject to transfer regulations - the transfer of important amounts of batteries of Li-Ion can be susceptible of regulatory controls. This restriction is not applied to personal movements.
Face to make - near a forty percent more expensive than Nicd. Better manufacturing techniques and the rare metal replacement with lower alternative costs probably will reduce the price
Not totally mature - changes in metal and the chemical combinations affect the test resultses of the battery

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About Hard Disk Drive

A hard disk drive^[2] (HDD) is a non-volatile, random access device for digital data. It features rotating rigid platters on a motor-driven spindle within a protective enclosure. Data is magnetically read from and written to the platter by read/write heads that float on a film of air above the platters.
Introduced by IBM in 1956, hard disk drives have fallen in cost and physical size over the years while dramatically increasing in capacity. Hard disk drives have been the dominant device for secondary storage of data in general purpose computers since the early 1960s.^[3] They have maintained this position because advances in their areal recording density have kept pace with the requirements for secondary storage.^[3] Today's HDDs operate on high-speed serial interfaces; i.e., serial ATA (SATA) or serial attached SCSI (SAS).

HDDs record data by magnetizing ferromagnetic material directionally. Sequential changes in the direction of magnetization represent patterns of binary data bits. The data are read from the disk by detecting the transitions in magnetization and decoding the originally written data. Different encoding schemes, such as Modified Frequency Modulation, group code recording, run-length limited encoding, and others are used.
A typical HDD design consists of a spindle that holds flat circular disks called platters, onto which the data are recorded. The platters are made from a non-magnetic material, usually aluminum alloy or glass, and are coated with a shallow layer of magnetic material typically 10–20 nm in depth, with an outer layer of carbon for protection. For reference, standard copy paper is 0.07–0.18 millimetre (70,000–180,000 nm).^[6]
The platters are spun at speeds varying from 3,000 RPM in energy-efficient portable devices, to 15,000 RPM for high performance servers. Information is written to, and read from a platter as it rotates past devices called read-and-write heads that operate very close (tens of nanometers in new drives) over the magnetic surface. The read-and-write head is used to detect and modify the magnetization of the material immediately under it. In modern drives there is one head for each magnetic platter surface on the spindle, mounted on a common arm. An actuator arm (or access arm) moves the heads on an arc (roughly radially) across the platters as they spin, allowing each head to access almost the entire surface of the platter as it spins. The arm is moved using a voice coil actuator or in some older designs a stepper motor.
The magnetic surface of each platter is conceptually divided into many small sub-micrometer-sized magnetic regions referred to as magnetic domains. In older disk designs the regions were oriented horizontally and parallel to the disk surface, but beginning about 2005, the orientation was changed to perpendicular to allow for closer magnetic domain spacing. Due to the polycrystalline nature of the magnetic material each of these magnetic regions is composed of a few hundred magnetic grains. Magnetic grains are typically 10 nm in size and each form a single magnetic domain. Each magnetic region in total forms a magnetic dipole which generates a magnetic field.
For reliable storage of data, the recording material needs to resist self-demagnetization, which occurs when the magnetic domains repel each other. Magnetic domains written too densely together to a weakly magnetizable material will degrade over time due to physical rotation of one or more domains to cancel out these forces. The domains rotate sideways to a halfway position that weakens the readability of the domain and relieves the magnetic stresses. Older hard disks used iron(III) oxide as the magnetic material, but current disks use a cobalt-based alloy.^[7]
A write head magnetizes a region by generating a strong local magnetic field. Early HDDs used an electromagnet both to magnetize the region and to then read its magnetic field by using electromagnetic induction. Later versions of inductive heads included metal in Gap (MIG) heads and thin film heads. As data density increased, read heads using magnetoresistance (MR) came into use; the electrical resistance of the head changed according to the strength of the magnetism from the platter. Later development made use of spintronics; in these heads, the magnetoresistive effect was much greater than in earlier types, and was dubbed "giant" magnetoresistance (GMR). In today's heads, the read and write elements are separate, but in close proximity, on the head portion of an actuator arm. The read element is typically magneto-resistive while the write element is typically thin-film inductive.^[8]
The heads are kept from contacting the platter surface by the air that is extremely close to the platter; that air moves at or near the platter speed. The record and playback head are mounted on a block called a slider, and the surface next to the platter is shaped to keep it just barely out of contact. This forms a type of air bearing.
In modern drives, the small size of the magnetic regions creates the danger that their magnetic state might be lost because of thermal effects. To counter this, the platters are coated with two parallel magnetic layers, separated by a 3-atom layer of the non-magnetic element ruthenium, and the two layers are magnetized in opposite orientation, thus reinforcing each other.^[9] Another technology used to overcome thermal effects to allow greater recording densities is perpendicular recording, first shipped in 2005,^[10] and as of 2007 the technology was used in many HDDs.^[11][12][13]

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How makes the storage a digital camera?

Many digital cameras have a screen LCD, reason why you can see your photography at the moment. This is one of the great advantages of a digital camera - you have a sample at the time of the image that you have captured. By all means, to see the image in your camera would lose its enchantment if that outside unique one that you could do. You need to be able to load the film in your computer or to directly send it to a printer. There are several ways to do this.
Some earlier generations of digital cameras had a fixed storage in their interior. It was needed to connect the camera directly to a computer with cables to transfer the images. Although nowadays, the majority of the cameras is able to connect by means of ports series and parallels, SCSI, USB or Firewire, usually also uses some type of extraíble storage device.
The digital cameras use a number of storage systems. They are something similar to re-usable digital films, and use a species of card reader to transfer the data to the computer. Many are fixed or extraíbles flash memory. Some manufacturers of digital cameras usually develop to their own memories flash in property, including cards SmartMedia, CompactFlash, etc. Other extraíbles storage devices are:

• Hard disks
• CDs and DVDs of read/write
• The diskettes

It does not concern that type of storage uses the digital cameras, all need space enough to keep the photos. Normally they store the images in one of these two formats, that are tiff, which is decompressed, and JPEG, that is compressed, although some cameras can use format RAW. Many of the cameras that use the format of file JPEG, offer quality configurations, as they can be average and high.
In order to completely take advantage of the space storage, almost all the digital cameras use the same class of compression to diminish the size of the files. Two functions of the digital images make this compression possible. One is the repetition and the other is irrelevance.
Imagínate that in a photo, some schemes are developed in the colors. For example, if a blue sky takes a thirty percent of the photography, you can be certainly some bluish shades are time and time again going to be repeated. When the compression routines take advantage schemes that are repeated, there is no loss of information and the image can be reconstructed exactly as it were recorded. Unfortunately, this much more does not reduce the archives that the 50 percent, and some times nor it approaches that average.
The irrelevance has in its origin something more deceptive. A digital camera records more information of the one than the human eye can easily detect. Some routines of compression benefit from this factor to discard some of the portions of more irrelevant data.

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Operation of the technology laser

The technology laser has played an important role in books and science films fiction, since we have been able to verify in “the war of the galaxies”, “Star Trek”, etc. It is no wonder thanks to this class of histories, we associate the lasers with wars of the future and great spaceships. But aside from this, the technology laser also is something very important in our daily lives. In fact, we can find it in an incredible rank of products and electronicses of all type. You will be able to find of reproducers CD until measuring instruments. What it is used to clear the tattoos, to do you implant of hair, and operations of eye, everything takes control of laser.
But what is a laser? What makes the ray different from a laser from the ray generated by a lantern? More specifically, that makes a ray laser different from other classes of light? How they classify the laser? We will see in the following guide, the different types from laser, their different wavelength, and the uses that we give him. But first of all, we will see the foundations of the technology laser.
The bases of the atom
Only there are about 100 types different from atom in all the universe. Everything what we see is done of these one hundred atoms in a limitless number of combinations. As these atoms are placed and tied to each other, they determine if an object is going to be a water glass, a metal piece, or the bubbles that leave a refreshment.
The atoms are in continuous movement. They are continuously vibrating, moving and rotating. Even the atoms that form the tables where you have the computer, are continuously moving. The solid objects are in movement. The atoms can be in different excited states. In other words, they can have different energies. If we applied a great amount of energy to an atom, it can take a high excitation level, and this depends on the energy applied via heat, light or electricity.
A simple atom consists of a nucleus (which contains protons and neutrons) and an electron cloud. Aid to think about electrons of the cloud circulating the nucleus in different orbits.
Absorbing energy
It is of utility to think about the orbits mentioned before, like different energy levels from the atom. In other words, if we applied heat to an atom, we can hope that some electrons in the orbits of more losses, can transicionar to higher orbits, moving away of the nucleus. We have explained it of a way simplified enough, but it reflects the idea of how the atoms in terms of laser work.
Once an electron moves to one more a higher orbit, possibly it wants to return to its previous state. When it does, it releases to its energy like a photon - a light particle. You can see atoms release energy like photons all along. For example, when you see the rods of a toaster become from red an incandescent one, the red color is brought about by atoms, which excited by the heat, release photons. When you see a film in a TV screen, which you are seeing are phosphorus atoms, excited by electrons at high speed and emitting different colors from light.
Any thing that produces light, as can be fluorescent lights, fluorescent gas lanterns or tubes, do by means of the action of electrons changing the orbits and releasing photons. In the following part, we will be able to see the connection between the laser and atoms.

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Android: Slowly but surely!

The world of the Smartphones, that seemed closed so, and until even oligopolical, with the absolute leadership of Rim, and with iPhone stepping on the heels to him, now adds to other devices that seem not to pause until occupying the first position in sales, by you raise and its two competitors. We are speaking of the Android platform, which owns more and more adept and buying.
This way Linux, the operating system with but possibilities of advance and development, acquires revenge by the loose sales in the market of the computers, and devastates with the commercialization of movable devices that include their platform of Android. Thus, according to the data published by the Nielsen consultant, Android 6 months have become the first option of the buyers of movable devices in the last, surpassing to very same iPhone of Apple.
On the basis of the numbers that east report threw, Android has a participation in the present market of 13 percent, which hits against the 35 percent of RIM, and the 28 percent of iPhone, but where is well noticeable the success that is having Android, is in the numbers of last growth of the time.
It is that while platform RIM has decreased in a 2 percent from year 2009, the revolutionary device of Apple has had a growth of the 7 percent, which is relegated enough if it is compared with the 11 percent of growth undergone by the Android device. In addition following with the data to Nielsen, the 71 percent of those who buys a Android terminal, they affirm that its following telephone will be a model based on this system.
Beyond these positive numbers for the system based on Linux, the market of the applications constitutes its great challenge. It is that although it has generated around 70,000 applications, are not able to reach the results that wait for, since the numbers are absolutely overwhelming: the 99 percent of the unloaded applications is of in Phone.

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The Microwaves talks

In the present times in which the phantom for radio frequency  is being small for the increasing demand of telecommunications, the incursion in the field of the microwaves is natural.
It is necessary to also take into account that exists some applications that are exclusive of the frequencies of microwaves

Applications of the microwaves
During World War II, to speak of the Radar was synonymous of microwaves. At this time the development of systems of microwaves received a great stimulus, due to the necessity of a radar of hi-res able to detect enemy airplanes and boats.
At present the use of systems of microwaves is most important and their applications include air traffic control, marine navigation, control of missiles, aviation, telecommunications, between many others.
In the last years the frequencies of microwaves are used more and more in telecommunications:
- In earth, the telecommunications with microwaves are used more and more using repeating, necessary antennas throughout a way or passage of communication
- In the space, the satellites are used like relay station, repeater stations of microwaves. These satellites have an enormous capacity and the new generations of satellites will be still more powerful.
The satellite communicationses, are becoming very important in the commercial area. Many television stations relay to everybody by means of satellites. The signal that these emit can catch in moved away places, where the service of traditional television does not exist.
Frequencies and wavelength
The microwaves include/understand frequencies that work in the rank from the 109 to 1012 Hertz, which they correspond to wavelengths which they go of the 30 cm. (centimeters) to 0,3 mm (millimeters). These wavelengths are of the same order of magnitude that the dimensions of the circuits used in its generation.
Due to the smallness of the wavelengths, the time of propagation of the electrical effects from a point to another one in the circuit, is comparable with the period and oscillating loads of the system.
As a result of the previous thing, an analysis by means of the law of currents of Kirchoff and the law of tension of Kirchoff and the conventional concepts of tension and current to LF suitably do not describe the electrical phenomena that occur in a circuit of microwaves.
In addition an analysis to a circuit of this type must consider associated the magnetic fields and electrical to this device.

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How works SCSI?

A computer is full of buses, that are simply freeways within the equipment which they take the information from a site to another one. For example, when you connect a reproducer MP3 or a digital camera to a computer, probably you are using a port USB. Port USB is good taking to the electricity and the data required for small electronicses that make things like creating and storing to photos or archives of music. But that bus is not sufficiently great to support to everything a computer, a servant or many devices simultaneously.
For this reason, you need something more powerful like SCSI. Originally, SCSI was “Small Computer System Interface” that means something like system of interface for small computers, although has surpassed the term of “small”. It is a fast bus that can connect many devices in a computer at the same time, including hard disks, scanners, printers, etc. Other technologies like SATA, have replaced SCSI in new systems, although it is continued using habitually.
Basic principles of SCSI
Technology SCSI is based on a previous system of called bus SASI (Shugart Associates System Interface), which was developed originally in 1981. In 1986 the national institute of American standards (ANSI), bring to light SCSI, which was a modified version of SASI. SCSI uses a controller to send and to receive data and power supply.
SCSI has several advantages. He is quite fast, reaching 320 Mbps. It has been time in the market already and has been verified and tried carefully, reason why it has reputation of being trustworthy. Like the ports TIE and Firewire, allows to put many objects in a single bus. SCSI works with the majority of the operating systems.
Types of SCSI
There are three basic specifications for SCSI:

• SCSI-1 - The original specification of this model developed in 1986, is already obsolete. It had a bus of 8 bits and one speed of 5 clock of MHz.
  
• SCSI-2 - Developed in 1994, this specification included CCS (Common Command Set), that is 18 considered commandos an absolute necessity to support a device SCSI. It also had the possibility of doubling to the speed of clock and the one of the bus, and of increasing the number of devices up to 15 units. It could store and also prioritize commandos of the computer.
  
• SCSI-3 - It is of 1995 and it included a series of smaller standards in a general scope. These standards where is parallel interface SCSI, are the form in which devices SCSI communicate to each other.
  

Cables, devices and controller
A controller SCSI coordinates between all the other devices in bus SCSI and the computer. Also call adapter of host, the controller can be a card that you connect to a groove available or another method. The BIOS of the SCSI is also a controller. This is a small flash memory or ROM that contains software necessary to accede and to control the devices of the bus.
Each device SCSI must have a unique identifier so that it can work correctly. For example, if the bus can support 16 devices, their IDs must have a rank from 0 to 15. Own controller SCSI must use of these IDs, normally highest, leaving space for other 15 devices in the bus.
Internal devices are connected to a controller SCSI with a tape cable. External devices SCSI are connected to the controller by means of a heavy round cable, and in chain. With this method, each device connects in line with the following one. Therefore, the external devices normally have two connectors SCSI - one to connect to the previous device in the chain, and the other to be able to connect the following device.
The own cable normally wears three layers:

• The internal layer - protecting Is the layer more and contains the data that are sent.
• The average layer - It contains the threads that the commandos of control send to the device.
• The external layer - It includes threads with transport parity information, which assures that the data are correct.

iferentes variations SCSI use different connectors, which often are incompatible to each other. These connectors normally use 50, 68 or 80 pins. Once all the devices are installed in the own bus and have their IDs, each end or completion of the bus must be closed. If bus SCSI to be left open, the electrical signals sent by the bus could create returns and interfere with the communication between devices and controller SCSI. The solution is to put a “completion” in the bus, closing each one of the ends with a resistance. If the bus supports as much internal devices as external, then the last device in each series must be finished.

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What is Intel Graphics Media Accelerator or GMA?

The Intel Graphics Media Accelerator, or GMA, is Intel's current line of integrated graphics processors built into various motherboard chipsets.
These integrated graphics products allow a computer to be built without a separate graphics card, which can reduce cost, power consumption and noise. They are commonly found on low-priced notebook and desktop computers as well as business computers, which do not need high levels of graphics capability. 90% of all PCs sold have integrated graphics.^[1] They rely on the computer's main memory for storage, which imposes a performance penalty, as both the CPU and GPU have to access memory over the same bus.

The GMA line of GPUs replaces the earlier "Intel Extreme Graphics", and the Intel740 line, which were discrete units in the form of AGP and PCI cards. Later, Intel integrated the i740 core into the Intel 810 chipset.
The original architecture of GMA systems supported only a few functions in hardware, and relied on the host CPU to handle at least some of the graphics pipeline, further decreasing performance. However, with the introduction of Intel’s 4th generation of GMA architecture (GMA X3000) in 2006, many of the functions are now built into the hardware, providing an increase in performance. The 4th generation of GMA combines fixed function capabilities with a threaded array of programmable executions units, providing advantages to both graphics and video performance. Many of the advantages of the new GMA architecture come from the ability to flexibly switch as needed between executing graphics-related tasks or video-related tasks. While GMA performance has been widely criticized in the past as being too slow for computer games, the latest GMA generation should ease many of those concerns for the casual gamer.
Despite similarities, Intel's main series of GMA IGPs is not based on the PowerVR technology Intel licensed from Imagination Technologies. Intel used the low-power PowerVR MBX designs in chipsets supporting their XScale platform, and since the sale of XScale in 2006 has licensed the PowerVR SGX and used it in the GMA 500 IGP for use with their Atom platform.

Graphics cores

GMA 900: The GMA 900 was the first graphics core produced under Intel's Graphics Media Accelerator product name, and was incorporated in the Intel 910G, 915G, and 915Gx chipsets.

The 3D architecture of the GMA 900 was a significant upgrade from the previous Extreme 3D graphics processors. It is a 4 pixel per clock cycle design supporting DirectX 9 pixel shader model 2.0. It operates at a clock rate ranging from 160 to 333 MHz, depending on the particular chipset. At 333 MHz, it has a peak pixel fill-rate of 1332 megapixels per second. However, the architecture still lacks support for hardware transform and lighting and the similar vertex shader technologies.
Like previous Intel integrated graphics parts, the GMA 900 has hardware support for MPEG-2 motion compensation, color-space conversion and DirectDraw overlay.
The processor uses different separate clock generators for display and render cores. The display unit includes a 400 MHz RAMDAC, 2 25–200 Mpixel/s serial DVO ports, and 2 display controllers. In mobile chipsets, up to 2 18-bit 25–112 MHz LVDS transmitters are included.

GMA 950: The GMA 950 is Intel's second-generation graphics core, which was also referred by Intel as 'Gen 3.5 Integrated Graphics Engine' in datasheets. It is used in the Intel 940GML, 945G, 945GU and 945GT system chipsets. The amount of video-decoding hardware has increased; VLD, iDCT, and dual video overlay windows are supposed to be handled in hardware.^[2] However in a feature comparison document^[3] it is noted, that VLD and iDCT are not supported until GMA 3100 (on G33 chipsets only). The maximum core clock is up to 400 MHz (on Intel 945G, 945GC, 945GZ, 945GSE), boosting pixel fill-rate to a theoretical 1600 megapixels/s.

The GMA 950 shares the same architectural weakness as the GMA 900: no hardware geometry processing. Neither basic hardware transform and lighting,^[4] nor more advanced vertex shaders are handled in the GMA hardware.

GMA 3000: The 946GZ, Q965, and Q963 chipsets use the GMA 3000 chip.^[5][6] The GMA 3000 3D core is very different from the X3000, despite their similar names. It is based more directly on the previous generation GMA 900 and GMA 950 graphics, and belonging to the same "i915" family with them. It has pixel and vertex shaders which only support Shader Model 2.0b features, and the vertex shaders are still only software-emulated. In addition, hardware video acceleration such as hardware-based iDCT computation, ProcAmp (video stream independent color correction), and VC-1 decoding are not implemented in hardware. Of the GMA 3000-equipped chipsets, only the Q965 retains dual independent display support. The core speed is rated at 400 MHz with 1.6 Gpixel/s fill rate in datasheets, but was listed as 667 MHz core in the white paper.^[7]

The memory controller can now address a maximum of 256 MB of system memory, and the integrated serial DVO ports have increased top speed to 270Mpixel/s.

GMA 3100: The G31, G33, Q33 and Q35 chipsets use the GMA 3100, which is DirectX 9 capable. The 3D core is very similar to the older GMA 3000, including the lack of hardware accelerated vertex shaders.

GMA X3000: The GMA X3000 for desktop was "substantially redesigned" when compared to previous GMA iterations^[8] and it is used in the Intel G965 north bridge controller.^[9] The GMA X3000 was launched in July 2006.^[10] X3000's underlying 3D rendering hardware is organized as a unified shader processor consisting of 8 scalar^[11] The GMA X3000 supports DirectX 9.0 with vertex and pixel Shader Model 3.0 features. execution units. Each pipeline can process video, vertex, or texture operations. A central scheduler dynamically dispatches threads to pipeline resources, to maximize rendering throughput (and decrease the impact of individual pipeline stalls.) However, due to the scalar nature of the execution units, they can only process data on a single pixel component at a time.

The processor consists of different clock domains, meaning that the entire chip does not operate the same clock speed. This causes some difficulty when measuring peak throughput of its various functions. Further adding to the confusion, it is listed as 667 MHz in Intel G965 white paper, but listed as 400 MHz in Intel G965 datasheet. There are various rules that define the IGP's processing capabilities.^[11]
Memory controller can now address maximum 384 MB memory according to white paper, but only 256 MB in datasheet.

GMA X3100: Information: The GMA X3100 is the mobile version of the GMA X3000 used in the Intel GL960/GM965 chipsets and also in the GS965 chipset. The X3100 supports hardware transform and lighting, up to 128 programmable shader units, and up to 384 MB memory. Its display cores can run up to 333 MHz on GM965 and 320 MHz on GL960. Its render cores can run up to 500 MHz on GM965 and 400 MHz on GL960. The X3100 display unit includes a 300 MHz RAMDAC, two 25–112 MHz LVDS transmitters, 2 DVO encoders, and a TV encoder. In addition, the hardware supports DirectX 10.0,^[3] Shader Model 4.0 and OpenGL 1.5.^[12]

GMA X3500: GMA X3500 is an upgrade of the GMA X3000 and used in the desktop G35. The shaders support shader model 4.0 features. Architecturally, the GMA X3500 is very similar to the GMA X3000,^[13] with both GMAs running at 667 MHz. The major difference between them is that the GMA X3500 supports Shader Model 4.0 and DirectX 10, whereas the earlier X3000 supports Shader Model 3.0 and DirectX 9.^[13] The X3500 also adds hardware-assistance for playback of VC-1 video.

GMA X4500: The GMA X4500 and the GMA X4500HD for desktop^[14] were launched in June 2008.^[15] The GMA X4500 is used in the G43 chipset^[16] and the GMA X4500HD is used in the G45 chipset.^[14] The GMA X4500 is also used in the G41 chipset,^[17][18] which was released in September 2008.

The GMA 4500MHD for laptops was launched on July 16, 2008. Featurewise, the 4500MHD is identical to its desktop cousin, the X4500HD.^{[citation needed]} It had been previously rumored that a cost-reduced version, the GMA 4500, was to be launched in late 2008 or early 2009^[19] and was to be used in the upcoming Q43 and Q45 chipsets.^[17] But in practice the Q43 and Q45 Chipsets also use the GMA X4500.^[20]
The difference between the GMA X4500 and the GMA X4500HD is that the GMA X4500HD is capable of "full 1080p high-definition video playback, including Blu-ray disc movies",^[14][21]
Like the X3500, X4500 supports DirectX 10 and Shader Model 4.0 features. Intel designed the GMA X4500 to be 200% faster than the GMA 3100 (G33 chipset) in 3DMark06 performance^[22] and 70% faster than the GMA X3500 (G35 chipset).^[23]

GMA 500: The Intel SCH (System Controller Hub; codenamed Poulsbo) for the Atom processor Z5xx series features a GMA 500 graphic system. Rather than being developed in-house, this core is a PowerVR SGX 535 core licensed from Imagination Technologies.^[24] Intel describes this as "a flexible, programmable architecture that supports shader-based technology, 2D, 3D and advanced 3D graphics, high-definition video decode, and image processing. Features include screen tiling, internal true color processing, zero overhead anti-aliasing, programmable shader 3D accelerator, and 32-bit floating-point operations."^[25]

HD Graphics (GMA HD): With the introduction of Arrandale-based Core i3, Core i5, and Core i7 processors, graphics cores were now built into the processor package itself. The integrated graphics chips are built on a 45 nm process and are much more power efficient than previous generation GMA cores. The graphics chips on the mobile Arrandale processors include a feature similar to Turbo Boost called dynamic frequency scaling, which allows it to gain a little extra headway.

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